Understanding the Characteristics and Motivations of Female Sexual Offenders: A Systematic Review

Main Article Content

Burcu Ozturk, PhD, MSW
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0184-5692
Bonni Goodwin, PhD, LCSW
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8700-7579
David McLeod, Ph. D., MSW
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9380-2253
Katrina D. Hawkins, MSW

Abstract

Sexual offenses are considered among the most egregious crimes in modern society. While some information is available in the public sphere, most popular conceptualizations of female sexual offenders are more heavily influenced by mythology and popular culture than science. Nonetheless, research helps further identify the characteristics of those who commit these crimes and their relation to those they victimize. This systematic review has been conducted to collect data on female sexual offenders. The initial literature search yielded 5,344 potential articles, 16 of which met the review’s eligibility criteria. The data organized from these articles provide this phenomenon's most recent state of science and provide a detailed picture of these women's identities, along with possible developmental and behavioral trajectories. Findings suggest extensive trauma histories and problematic boundary development in personal and familial relationships are critical factors for consideration--data that doesn't necessarily align with portrayals of these women in popular culture.

Article Details

How to Cite
Ozturk, B., Goodwin, B., McLeod, D., & Hawkins, K. (2024). Understanding the Characteristics and Motivations of Female Sexual Offenders: A Systematic Review . Journal of Forensic Social Work, 8(1), 48–57. https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.1936-9298.2024.8.1.48-57
Section
Articles

References

Abulafia, J., & Epstein, R. (2022). Motivational and cognitive factors in pathways to offending amongst women who have sexually offended. Sexual Abuse, 34(5), 620-637. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10790632211051688 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10790632211051688

Almond, L., McManus, M. A., Giles, S., & Houston, E. (2017). Female sex offenders: An analysis of crime scene behaviors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(24), 3839-3860. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515603976 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515603976

American Humane Association. (1987). Available from: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015016184486&seq=11

Banning, A. (1989). Mother-son incest: Confronting a prejudice. Child Abuse & Neglect, 13(4), 563-570. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(89)90060-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(89)90060-4

Barros S, Oliveira C, Araújo E, Moreira D, Almeida F, Santos A. Community intervention programs for sex offenders: A systematic review. Front Psychiatry. 2022 Nov 24;13:949899. DOI: http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.949899 PMID: 36506440; PMCID: PMC9729871. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.949899

Bensel, T., Gibbs, B., & Burkey, C. R. (2019). Female sex offenders: Is there a difference between solo and co-offenders? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(19), 4061–4084. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516674202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516674202

Bickart, W., McLearen, A. M., Grady, M. D., & Stoler, K. (2019). A descriptive study of psychosocial characteristics and offense patterns in females with online child pornography offenses. Psychiatry, Psychology, and Law, 26(2), 295-311. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2018.1506714 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2018.1506714

Borelli, J. L., Cohen, C., Pettit, C., Normandin, L., Target, M., Fonagy, P., & Ensink, K. (2019). Maternal and child sexual abuse history: An intergenerational exploration of children's adjustment and maternal trauma-reflective functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1062-1062. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01062 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01062

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Brunton, V. J., Stansfield, C., Caird, J., & Thomas, J. (2017). Finding relevant studies. Sage.

Bunting, L. (2005). Females who sexually offend against children: responses of the child protection and criminal justice systems. NSPCC. https://www.nspcc.org.uk/Inform/research/findings/femaleswhosexuallyoffend_wda48273.html

Chideckel, M. (1935). Female sex perversion: The sexually aberrated woman as she is. Eugenics Publishing Company. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1056/nejm193509052131023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM193509052131023

Comartin, E. B., Burgess-Proctor, A., Kubiak, S., Bender, K. A., & Kernsmith, P. (2021). Comparing women's and men's sexual offending using a statewide incarcerated sample: A two-study design. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(7-8), 3093-3116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518772110 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518772110

Cortoni, F., Babchishin, K. M., & Rat, C. (2017). The proportion of sexual offenders who are female is higher than thought: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44(2), 145-162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816658923 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816658923

Cortoni, F., & Hanson, K. R. (2005). A review of the recidivism rates of adult female sexual offenders. Ottawa: Correctional Service Canada.

DeCou, C. R., Cole, T. T., Rowland, S. E., Kaplan, S. P., & Lynch, S. M. (2015). An ecological process model of female sex offending: The role of victimization, psychological distress, and life stressors. Sexual Abuse, 27(3), 302-323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063214556359 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063214556359

Deesing, M. A., Buttlaire, A., Nikjoo, A., & Joshi, P. (2021). Sexually predatory behavior in an adolescent female. Journal of Psychiatric Practice®, 27(3), 228-231. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1097/pra.0000000000000546 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000546

Dugal, C., Godbout, N., Bélanger, C., Hébert, M., & Goulet, M. (2018). Cumulative childhood maltreatment and subsequent psychological violence in intimate relationships: The role of emotion dysregulation. Partner Abuse, 9(1), 18–40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.9.1.18 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.9.1.18

Edelman N. (2023). Doing Trauma-Informed Work in a Trauma-Informed Way: Understanding Difficulties and Finding Solutions. Health services insights, 16, 11786329231215037. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/11786329231215037 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/11786329231215037

Faller, K. C. (1995). A clinical sample of women who have sexually abused children. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 4(3), 13-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v04n03_02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v04n03_02

Freeman, N. J., & Sandler, J. C. (2008). Female and male sex offenders: A comparison of recidivism patterns and risk factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(10), 1394-1413. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508314304 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508314304

Gannon, T. A., Waugh, G., Taylor, K., Blanchette, K., O'Connor, A., Blake, E., & Ó Ciardha, C. (2014). Women who sexually offend display three main offense styles: A reexamination of the descriptive model of female sexual offending. Sexual Abuse, 26(3), 207-224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063213486835 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063213486835

Gillespie, S. M., Williams, R., Elliott, I. A., Eldridge, H. J., Ashfield, S., & Beech, A. R. (2015). Characteristics of females who sexually offend: A comparison of solo and co-offenders. Sexual Abuse, 27(3), 284-301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063214556358 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063214556358

Grant, J. (2022). The Primary Prevention of Female Sexual Offending: Current Opportunities. Journal of Victimology and Victim Justice, 5(2), 139-148. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/25166069221134224 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/25166069221134224

Gruhn, M. A., & Compas, B. E. (2020). Effects of maltreatment on coping and emotion regulation in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review. Child abuse & neglect, 103, 104446. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104446 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104446

Harrison, J. L., O'Toole, S. K., Ammen, S., Ahlmeyer, S., Harrell, S. N., & Hernandez, J. L. (2020). Sexual Offender Treatment Effectiveness Within Cognitive-Behavioral Programs: A Meta-Analytic Investigation of General, Sexual, and Violent Recidivism. Psychiatry, psychology, and law : an interdisciplinary journal of the Australian and New Zealand Association of Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 27(1), 1–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2018.1485526 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2018.1485526

Lehrer D. (2021). Trauma-Informed Care: The Importance of Understanding the Incarcerated Women. Journal of correctional health care : the official journal of the National Commission on Correctional Health Care, 27(2), 121–126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/jchc.20.07.0060 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/jchc.20.07.0060

Levenson, J. S., & Grady, M. D. (2016). The influence of childhood trauma on sexual violence and sexual deviance in adulthood. Traumatology, 22(2), 94–103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000067 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000067

Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P. J., Kleijnen, J., & Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), W-65. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000100 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000100

Malcolm, P. (2017). Psychodynamic Theory. In Social Work Theory and Methods (pp. 65-77). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315210223-7

Matthews, J., Mathews, R., & Speltz, K. (1991). Female sexual offenders: A typology. In M. Q. Patton (Ed.), Family sexual abuse: Frontline research and evaluation (pp. 199-219). SAGE Publications, Inc. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483325613.n13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483325613.n13

McCloskey, L. A. (2013). The intergenerational transfer of mother-daughter risk for gender-based abuse. Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 41(2), 303–328. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2013.41.2.303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2013.41.2.303

McDaniels-Wilson, C., & Belknap, J. (2008). The extensive sexual violation and sexual abuse histories of incarcerated women. Violence Against Women, 14(10), 1090-1127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208323160 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208323160

McLeod, D. A. (2015). Female offenders in child sexual abuse cases: A national picture. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 24(1), 97-114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2015.978925 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2015.978925

McLeod, D. A., & Craft, M. L. (2015). Female sexual offenders in child sexual abuse cases: National trends associated with child protective services system entry, exit, utilization, and socioeconomics. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 9(4), 399-416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2015.1064849 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2015.1064849

McLeod, D. A., & Dodd, M. (2022). Modernized female sex offender typologies: Intrapsychic, behavioral, and trauma related domains. Cogent Social Sciences, 8(1), 2085360. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2085360 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2085360

McLeod, D. A., Dunnells, Z. D., & Ozturk, B. (2021). Female offenders in child sexual abuse. DOI: http://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98499 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98499

Munroe, C., & Shumway, M. (2022). Female-perpetrated sexual violence: A survey of survivors of female-perpetrated childhood sexual abuse and adult sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(9–10), NP6655–NP6675. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520967137 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520967137

National Sexual Violence Resource Center. (2023). About Sexual Assault. https://www.nsvrc.org/about-sexual-assault

Neofytou, E. (2022). Childhood trauma history of female sex offenders: A systematic review. Sexologies, 31(2), 99-106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sexol.2021.10.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sexol.2021.10.003

Oates, R. K., Tebbutt, J., Swanston, H., Lynch, D. L., & O'Toole, B. I. (1998). Prior childhood sexual abuse in mothers of sexually abused children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(11), 1113–1118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00091-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00091-X

Ó Ciardha, C., & Ward, T. (2013). Theories of cognitive distortions in sexual offending: What the current research tells us. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 14(1), 5-21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012467856 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012467856

Pflugradt, D. M., & Allen, B. P. (2010). An exploratory analysis of executive functioning for female sexual offenders: A comparison of characteristics across offense typologies. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 19(4), 434-449. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2010.495701 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2010.495701

Pflugradt, D. M., Allen, B. P., & Zintsmaster, A. J. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences of violent female offenders: A comparison of homicide and sexual perpetrators. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(8), 2312-2328. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X17712966 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X17712966

Polizzi, D. M., MacKenzie, D. L., & Hickman, L. J. (1999). What works in adult sex offender treatment? A review of prison-and non-prison-based treatment programs. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 43(3), 357-374. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X99433008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X99433008

Robbins, S. P., Vaughan-Eden, V., & Maschi, T. (2015). From the Editor—It’s Not CSI: The Importance of Forensics for Social Work Education. Journal of Social Work Education, 51(3), 421–424. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2015.1046341 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2015.1046341

Rocha, I. C. O., & Valença, A. M. (2023). The efficacy of CBT based interventions to sexual offenders: A systematic review of the last decade literature. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 87, 101856. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2022.101856 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2022.101856

Roe‐Sepowitz, D., & Krysik, J. (2008). Examining the sexual offenses of female juveniles: The relevance of childhood maltreatment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78(4), 405-412. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014310 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014310

Saradjian, J. (2010). Understanding the prevalence of female‐perpetrated sexual abuse and the impact of that abuse on victims. Female sexual offenders: Theory, assessment and treatment, 9-30. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470666715.ch2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470666715.ch2

Sandler, J. C., & Freeman, N. J. (2007). Topology of female sex offenders: A test of Vandiver and Kercher. Sexual Abuse, 19(2), 73-89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320701900201 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320701900201

Sheldon, K. M. (1995). Creativity and self-determination in personality. Creativity Research Journal, 8(1), 25-36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj0801_3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj0801_3

Solis, O. L., & Benedek, E. P. (2012). Female sexual offenders in the educational system: A brief overview. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 76(2), 172-188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1521/bumc.2012.76.2.172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1521/bumc.2012.76.2.172

Stathopoulos, M., & Quadara, A. (2014). Women as offenders women as victims: The role of corrections in supporting women with histories of sexual abuse. Australian Institute of Family Studies.

Steely, M., & Ten Bensel, T. (2020). Child sexual abuse within educational settings: A qualitative study on female teachers who sexually abuse their students. Deviant Behavior, 41(11), 1440-1453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1624288 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1624288

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2023). Practical Guide for Implementing a Trauma-Informed Approach. SAMHSA Publication No. PEP23-06-05-005. Rockville, MD: National Mental Health and Substance Use Policy Laboratory. https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/pep23-06-05-005.pdf. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e400902005-005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/e400902005-005

Testa, M., Hoffman, J. H., and Livingston, J. A. (2011). Intergenerational transmission of sexual victimization vulnerability as mediated via parenting. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(5), 363–371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.01.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.01.010

Testoni, I., Mariani, C., and Zamperini, A. (2018). Domestic violence between childhood incest and re-victimization: A study among anti-violence centers in Italy. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2377-2377. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02377 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02377

Tsopelas, C., Spyridoula, T., & Athanasios, D. (2011). Review on female sexual offenders: Findings about profile and personality. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 34(2), 122-126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.02.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.02.006

Vandiver, D. M. (2006). Female sex offenders: A comparison of solo offenders and co-offenders. Violence and Victims, 21(3), 339-354. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.21.3.339 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/088667006780644668

Van Langen, M. A., Stams, G. J. J., Van Vugt, E. S., Wissink, I. B., & Asscher, J. J. (2014). Explaining female offending and prosocial behavior: The role of empathy and cognitive distortions. Laws, 3(4), 706-720. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/laws3040706 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/laws3040706

von Krafft-Ebing, R. (1886). Psychopathia sexualis: eine klinisch-forensische Studie. (No Title). DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05728-0_11878-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05728-0_11878-1

Warren, J. I., & Hislop, J. (2008). Patterns of female sexual offending and their investigatory significance to law enforcement and child protective services. In R. R. Hazelwood & A. W. Burgess (Eds.), Practical aspects of rape investigation (pp. 469-484). CRC Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420065053-31 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420065053-31

Wearick-Silva, L. E., Tractenberg, S. G., Levandowski, M. L., Viola, T. W., Pires, J. M. A., & Grassi-Oliveira, R. (2014). Mothers who were sexually abused during childhood are more likely to have a child victim of sexual violence. Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, (36)2, 119–119. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2013-0054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2013-0054

Weinsheimer, C. C., Woiwod, D. M., Coburn, P. I., Chong, K., & Connolly, D. A. (2017). The unusual suspects: Female versus male accused in child sexual abuse cases. Child abuse & neglect, 72, 446-455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.003

Weizmann-Henelius, G., Viemerö, V., & Eronen, M. (2003). The violent female perpetrator and her victim. Forensic science international, 133(3), 197–203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0379-0738(03)00068-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00068-9

Wijkman, M. D. S., & da Silva, T. (2021). Multiple perpetrator rape committed by female offenders: a comparison of solo, duo, and 3+ group offenders. Sexual Abuse, 33(3), 321-338. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063219897065 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063219897065

Williams, K. S., & Bierie, D. M. (2015). An incident-based comparison of female and male sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse, 27(3), 235-257. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063214544333 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063214544333

Wong, T. M. L., & Van de Schoot, R. (2012). The effect of offenders’ sex on reporting crimes to the police. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(7), 1276-1292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511425245 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511425245

Wulffen, E. (1934). Woman as a sexual criminal. American Ethnological Press.

Yates, P. M. (2004). Treatment of Adult Sexual Offenders: A Therapeutic Cognitive-Behavioural Model of Intervention. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 12(3–4), 195–232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v12n03_08 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v12n03_08