Ambivalence about Social Welfare: An Evaluation of Measurement Approaches
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.2374-7781.2008.29.0.109-134Abstract
Research across disciplines, including political science, has embraced the idea that individuals often possess ambivalent attitudes, but there is considerable disagreement about how to measure this phenomenon. Determining an effective way of capturing such phenomena is important to our under-standing of politics and public opinion. The literature offers several meta-attitudinal and operative measures of ambivalence. I discuss strengths and weaknesses of each of these approaches and con-duct a test of the relative construct validity of two meta-attitudinal and two operative measures of social welfare ambivalence using data from a statewide survey of Florida residents in 2004. The findings suggest that one of the operative measures that forces respondents to rate their positive and negative feelings separately performs better than any of the other approaches currently offered.References
Albertson, Bethany, John Brehm, and R. Michael Alvarez. 2005. Ambivalence as Internal Conflict. In Ambivalence and the Structure of Political Opinion, eds. Stephen C. Craig and Michael D. Martinez. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781403979094_2
Alvarez, R. Michael, and John Brehm. 1995. American Ambivalence towards Abortion Policy: Development of a Heteroskedastic Probit Model of Competing Values. American Journal of Political Science 39(4):1055-1082. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2111669
Alvarez, R. Michael, and John Brehm. 1997. Are Americans Ambivalent Towards Racial Policies? American Journal of Political Science 41(2):345-374. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2111768
Alvarez, R. Michael, and John Brehm. 1998. Speaking in Two Voices: American Equivocation about the Internal Revenue Service. American Journal of Political Science 42:418-452. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2991765
Alvarez, R. Michael, and John Brehm. 2002. Hard Choices, Easy Answers: Values, Information, and American Public Opinion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Armitage, Christopher J., and Mark Conner. 2000. Attitudinal Ambivalence: A Test of Three Key Hypotheses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26:1421-1432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167200263009
Bassili, John N. 1996. Meta-Judgmental Versus Operative Indexes of Psychological Attributes: The Case of Measures of Attitude Strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71:637-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.4.637
Bobo, Lawrence, and James R. Kluegel. 1993. Opposition to Race Targeting: Self-interest, Stratification Ideology, or Racial Attitudes. American Sociological Review 58(4):443-464. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2096070
Boninger, David S., Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent. 1995. Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68:61-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.61
Cantril, Albert H., and Susan D. Cantril. 1999. Reading Mixed Signals: Ambivalence in American Public Opinion about Government. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
Cacioppo, John T., Wendi Gardner, and Gary G. Berntson. 1997. Beyond Bipolar Conceptualizations and Measures: The Case of Attitudes and Evaluative Space. Personality and Social Psychology Review 1:3-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0101_2
Cook, Fay Lomax, and Edith J. Barrett. 1992. Support for the American Welfare State: The Views of Congress and the Public. New York: Columbia University Press.
Craig, Stephen C., James G. Kane, and Michael D. Martinez. 2002. Sometimes You Feel Like a Nut, Sometimes You Donít: Citizens' Ambivalence about Abortion. Political Psychology 23(2):285-301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00282
Craig, Stephen C., Michael D. Martinez, and James G. Kane. 2005. Ambivalence and Response Instability: A Panel Study. In Ambivalence and the Structure of Political Opinion, eds. Stephen C. Craig and Michael D. Martinez. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781403979094_4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781403979094
Craig, Stephen C., Michael D. Martinez, James G. Kane, and Jason Gainous. 2005. Core Values, Value Conflict, and Citizens' Ambivalence about Gay Rights. Political Research Quarterly 58(1):5-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3595591 http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/106591290505800101
Eagly, Alice H., and Shelly Chaiken. 1993. The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
Feldman, Stanley, and John Zaller. 1992. The Political Culture of Ambivalence: Ideological Responses to the Welfare State. American Journal of Political Science 36(1):268-307. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2111433
Fiske, Susan T., and Shelly E. Taylor. 1991. Social Cognition, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gainous, Jason, and Michael D. Martinez. 2005. What Happens When We Simultaneously Want Opposite Things? Ambivalence about Social Welfare. In Ambivalence, Politics, and Public Policy, eds. Stephen C. Craig and Michael D. Martinez. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-07782-0_3
Gilens, Martin. 1988. Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval. American Journal of Political Science 32:19-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2111308
Gilens, Martin. 1995. Racial Attitudes and Opposition to Welfare. Journal of Politics 57(4):994-1014. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2960399
Goren, Paul. 2001. Core Principles and Policy Reasoning in Mass Publics: A Test of Two Theories. British Journal of Political Science 31:159-177. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007123401000072
Hodson, Gordon, Gregory R. Maio, and Victoria M. Esses. 2001. The Role of Attitudinal Ambivalence in Susceptibility to Consensus Information. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 23:197-205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2303_6
Holbrook, Allyson L., and Jon A. Krosnick. 2005. Meta-Psychological Versus Operative Measures of Ambivalence: Differentiating the Consequences of Perceived Intra-Psychic Conflict and Real Intra-Psychic Conflict. In Ambivalence and the Structure of Political Opinion, eds. Stephen C. Craig and Michael D. Martinez. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781403979094_5
Horton, Nicholas J., and Stuart R. Lipsitz. 2001. Multiple Imputation in Practice: Com- parison of Software Packages for Regression Models with Missing Variables. The American Statistician 55:244-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1198/000313001317098266
Jacoby, William. G. 2002. Core Values and Political Attitudes. Pp. 177-201 in Understanding Public Opinion, 2nd ed., eds. Barbara Norrander and Clyde Wilcox. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
Jacoby, William G. 2005. Is It Really Ambivalence? Public Opinion toward Government Spending. In Ambivalence and the Structure of Political Opinion, eds. Stephen C. Craig and Michael D. Martinez. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781403979094_8
Kaplan, Kalman J. 1972. On the Ambivalence-Indifference Problem in Attitude Theory and Measurement: A Suggested Modification of the Semantic Differential Technique. Psychological Bulletin 77:361-372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0032590
Katz, Irwin, and R. Glen Hass. 1988. Racial Ambivalence and American Value Conflict: Correlational and Priming Studies of Dual Cognitive Structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55(6):893-905. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.6.893
Katz, Irwin, J. Wackenhut, and R. Glen Hass. 1986. Racial Ambivalence, Value Duality, and Behavior. Pp. 35-59 in Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism, eds. John F. Dovidio and Samuel L. Gaertner. New York: Academic Press.
Kaufmann, Karen M., and John R. Petrocik. 1999. The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap. American Journal of Political Science 43:864-887. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2991838
Kinder, Donald R., and Nicholas Winter. 2001. Exploring the Racial Divide: Blacks, Whites, and Opinion on National Policy. American Journal of Political Science 45(2):439-456. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2669351
Krosnick, Jon A. 1988. Attitude Importance and Attitude Change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 24:240-255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(88)90038-8
Krosnick, Jon A., and Robert P. Abelson. 1992. The Case for Measuring Attitude Strength in Surveys. Pp. 177-203 in Questions about Questions: Inquiries into the Cognitive Bases of Surveys, ed. Judith M. Tanur. New York: Russell Sage.
Krosnick, Jon A., David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Mathew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot. 1993. Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65:1132-1151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.6.1132
Lavine, Howard, and Marco Steenbergen. 2005. Group Ambivalence and Electoral Deci- sion Making. In Ambivalence, Politics, and Public Policy, eds. Stephen C. Craig and Michael D. Martinez. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-07782-0_1
Marks, Gary, Liesbet Hooghe, Marco R. Steenbergen, and Ryan Bakker. 2004. Cross-validating Data on Party Positioning on European Integration. Paper prepared for the Workshop Comparing Data Sets on Party Positioning. Amsterdam: Free University.
Martinez, Michael D., Stephen C. Craig, James G. Kane, and Jason Gainous. 2005. Am- bivalence and Value Conflict: A Test of Two Issues. In Ambivalence, Politics, and Public Policy, eds. Stephen C. Craig and Michael D. Martinez. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-07782-0_4
McGraw, Kathleen M., Edward Hasecke, and Kimberly Conger. 2003. Ambivalence, Uncertainty, and Processes of Candidate Evaluation. Political Psychology 24:421- 448. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00335
Mulligan, Kenneth, and Kathleen M. McGraw. 2002. Value Conflict: The Effects of Competing Principles on Political Judgment. Paper presented at the 2002 Annual Meetings of the American Political Science Association, Boston, MA.
Nelson, Thomas E. 1999. Group Affect and Attribution in Social Policy Opinion. Journal of Politics 61(2):331-362. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2647507
Newby-Clark, Ian R., Ian McGregor, and Mark P. Zanna. 2002. Thinking and Caring about Cognitive Inconsistency: When and for Whom does Attitudinal Ambivalence Feel Uncomfortable? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82:157-166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.2.157
Newby-Clark, Ian R., Ian McGregor, and Mark P. Zanna. 2005. Ambivalence and Accessibility: The Consequences of Accessible Ambivalence. In Ambivalence and the Structure of Political Opinion, eds. Stephen C. Craig and Michael D. Martinez. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781403979094_3
Osgood, Charles E., George J. Suci, and Percy H. Tannenbaum. 1957. The Measurement of Meaning. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Popkin, Samuel L. 1991. The Reasoning Voter: Communication and Persuasion in Presi- dential Campaigns. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Priester, Joseph R., and Richard E. Petty. 1996. The Gradual Threshold Model of Ambivalence: Relating the Positive and Negative Bases of Attitudes to Subjective Ambivalence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71:431-449. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.431
Priester, Joseph R., and Richard E. Petty. 2001. Extending the Bases of Subjective Atti- tudinal Ambivalence: Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Antecedents of Evaluative Tension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80:19-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.19
Rokeach, Milton. 1973. The Nature of Human Values. New York: The Free Press.
Schwartz, Shalom H. 1992. Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries. Pp. 1-65 in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 25, ed. Mark P. Zanna. New York: Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60281-6
Sniderman, Paul M., Richard A. Brody, and Philip E. Tetlock. 1991. Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511720468
Steenbergen, Marco R., and Paul R. Brewer. 2000. The Not-So-Ambivalent Public: Policy Attitudes in the Political Culture of Ambivalence. Pp. 101-142 in The Issue of Belief: Essays in the Intersection of Non-Attitudes and Attitude Change, eds. Willem E. Saris and Paul M. Sniderman. Amsterdam: The Amsterdam School of Communication Research, Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Tate, Katherine. 1994. From Protest to Politics: The New Black Voters in American Elections. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Thompson, Megan, Mark P. Zanna, and Dale W. Griffin. 1995. Let's Not Be Indifferent About (Attitudinal) Ambivalence. Pp. 361-386 in Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences, eds. Richard E. Petty and Jon A. Krosnick. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Zaller, John R. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818691
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Authors who publish with American Review of Politics agree to the following terms:
The Author retains copyright in the Work, where the term “Work” shall include all digital objects that may result in subsequent electronic publication or distribution.
Upon acceptance of the Work, the author shall grant to the Publisher the right of first publication of the Work.
The Author shall grant to the Publisher and its agents the nonexclusive perpetual right and license to publish, archive, and make accessible the Work in whole or in part in all forms of media now or hereafter known under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License or its equivalent, which, for the avoidance of doubt, allows others to copy, distribute, and transmit the Work under the following conditions:
Attribution: other users must attribute the Work in the manner specified by the author as indicated on the journal Web site;
Non-Commercial: the materials may not be used for commercial purposes;
Share Alike: If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original.
with the understanding that the above condition can be waived with permission from the Author and that where the Work or any of its elements is in the public domain under applicable law, that status is in no way affected by the license.
The Author is able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the nonexclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the Work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), as long as there is provided in the document an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post online a pre-publication manuscript (but not the Publisher’s final formatted PDF version of the Work) in institutional repositories or on their Websites prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (see The Effect of Open Access). Any such posting made before acceptance and publication of the Work shall be updated upon publication to include a reference to the Publisher-assigned DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and a link to the online abstract for the final published Work in the Journal.
Upon Publisher’s request, the Author agrees to furnish promptly to Publisher, at the Author’s own expense, written evidence of the permissions, licenses, and consents for use of third-party material included within the Work, except as determined by Publisher to be covered by the principles of Fair Use.
The Author represents and warrants that:
the Work is the Author’s original work;
the Author has not transferred, and will not transfer, exclusive rights in the Work to any third party;
the Work is not pending review or under consideration by another publisher;
the Work has not previously been published;
the Work contains no misrepresentation or infringement of the Work or property of other authors or third parties; and
the Work contains no libel, invasion of privacy, or other unlawful matter.
The Author agrees to indemnify and hold Publisher harmless from Author’s breach of the representations and warranties contained in Paragraph 6 above, as well as any claim or proceeding relating to Publisher’s use and publication of any content contained in the Work, including third-party content.