Genuine Security for Whom?: Militourism and Violence Against the Feminine in Hawaiʻi and Asia and the Pacific

Main Article Content

Nik Cristobal
Sam Ikehara
ʻIhilani Lasconia
Hina Kaʻōpua-Canonigo
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4012-3037

Abstract

Assaults on ʻāina (land; that which feeds) are assaults on wāhine (women). Violence toward wāhine ʻōiwi (Native Hawaiian women/feminine people) and the ʻāina is discussed through the context of the Missing and Murdered Native Hawaiian Women, Girls, Māhū (MMNHWGM) movement and its relation to militourism. Militourism is used to draw parallels between the violence experienced by wāhine ʻōiwi in Hawaiʻi and women in the Philippines and across Asia and the Pacific. The concept of “genuine security” is addressed as a step toward sovereignty and reducing violence against wāhine and ʻāina. Reflective solutions to the violent impacts of militourism are offered through the frame of radical healing.

Article Details

Section
Articles

References

Arista, N. (2011). Captive women in paradise 1796-1826: The Kapu on prostitution in Hawaiian historical legal context. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 35(4), 39–55. https://doi.org/10.17953/ aicr.35.4.4268810535747523 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.35.4.4268810535747523

Akibayashi, K., Fabros, C. V., Kirk, G., Natividad, L. L., & Okazawa-Rey, M. (2022). Feminists visioning genuine security and a culture of peace: International Women’s Network Against Militarism. In S. Smith & K. Yoshida (Eds.), Feminist Conversations on Peace (1st ed.) (pp. 91–104). Bristol University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2rr3hcn.11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2rr3hcn.11

Cachola, E-R. C. (2014). Archives of transformation: A case study of the International Women’s Network Against Militarism’s archival system. [Doctoral dissertation, University of California Los Angeles]. eScholarship. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4z62v6j5

Center for Disease Control (CDC). (2020). Summary health statistics: National health interview Survey: 2016. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis/shs/tables.htm

Chong, N. G. (2014). Human trafficking and sex industry: Does ethnicity and race matter? Journal of Intercultural Studies, 35(2):196–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2014.885413 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2014.885413

Cristobal, N., Gomes, M., & Mahaʻa, A. (in progress). Holoi ā nalo Wāhine ʻŌiwi: Missing and Murdered Native Hawaiian Women and Girls Task Force Report (Part II). Office of Hawaiian Affairs; Hawaii State Commission on the Status of Women.

Cristobal, N. (2022). Holoi ā nalo Wāhine ‘Ōiwi: Missing and Murdered Native Hawaiian Women and Girls Task Force Report (Part 1). Office of Hawaiian Affairs; Hawaii State Commission on the Status of Women. https://www.oha.org/wp-content/uploads/MMNHWG-Report-Web.pdf

Coffman, T. (1998). Nation within. EpiCenter Press.

Commander, Navy Region Hawaii (CNRH). (2023). The Red Hill Bulk Storage Facility.

https://cnrh.cnic.navy.mil/Operations-and-Management/Red-Hill/DEPARTMENT-OF-DEFENSE-CLOSURE-PLAN-RED-HILL-BULK-FUEL-STORAGE-FACILITY/

Compoc, K., & Muneoka, S. (2014, June 23). We need to ask hard questions about RIMPAC. The Hawaii Independent. https://thehawaiiindependent.com/index/thehawaiiindependent.com/indexindex.php/TRETestimony@capitol.hawai.gov/Star-Advertiser/P600

Crawford, N. C. (2019). Pentagon fuel use, climate change, and the costs of war. Watson Institute. https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/papers/ClimateChangeandCostofWar

Department of Business, Economic Development & Tourism (DBEDT). (2020). State of Hawaii Data Book. https://dbedt.hawaii.gov/economic/databook/db2020/

Department of Hawaiian Homelands (DHHL). (2021). 2021 legislative fact sheet. https://dhhl.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2021-DHHL-Legislative-Handout-8.5x11-FINAL.pdf

Department of Human Services (DHS). (2018). Hawaii State Commission on the Status of Women launches anti-trafficking campaign. https://humanservices.hawaii.gov/hawaii-state-commission-on-the-status-of-women-launches-anti-trafficking-campaign/

Department of Veterans Affairs - Center for Minority Veterans (DVA). (2016). Asian American and Pacific Islander fact sheet. https://www.va.gov/centerforminorityveterans/docs/factsheetaanhpionepage.pdf

Ferguson, K. E. & Turnbull, P. (1999). Oh, say, can you see? The Semiotics of the military in Hawaiʻi. University of Minnesota Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5749/j.cttttg20

Foliaki, S. & Pearce, N. (2003). Prevention and control of diabetes in Pacific people. British Medical Journal, 327(7412), 437–439. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7412.437 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7412.437

Galinsky, A. M., Zelaya, C. E., Barnes, P. M., & Simile, C. (2017). Selected health conditions among Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander adults: United States, 2014. Center for Disease Control. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db277.pdf

Gibson, G., Yung, K., Chisholm, L., Quinn, H., Lake Babine Nation, & Nak’azdli Whut’en. (2017). Indigenous communities and industrial camps: Promoting healthy communities in settings of industrial change. The Firelight Group. https://firelight.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Firelight-work-camps-Feb-82017_FINAL.pdf

Ginoza, A. (2016). R&R at the intersection of US and Japanese dual empire: Okinawan women and decolonizing militarized heterosexuality. American Quarterly, 68(3), 583–591. https://doi.org/10.1353/aq.2016.0054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/aq.2016.0054

Grisafi, L. (2020). Living in the blast zone: Sexual violence piped onto native land by extractive industries. Colombia Journal of Law and Social Problems, 53(4), 509–539.

Gonzalez, V. V. (2013). Securing paradise: Tourism and militarism in Hawaiʻi and the Philippines. Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822395942

Hawaii Defense Economy (HDE). (2022). Defense personnel in Hawaii. https://defenseeconomy.hawaii.gov/defense-economy-personnel/

Hawaiian Homes Commission Act (HHCA). (1920). Hawaiian Homes Commission. https://dhhl.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Hawaiian-Homes-Commission-Act-1921-As-Ammended-Searchable.pdf

Hawaii Health Data Warehouse (HHDW). (2017). YRBS [Data set]. Hawai‘i’s Indicator Based Information System (IBIS). https://hhdw.org/report/query/result/yrbs/Controlled/Controlled_HS_ST.htmlHawaii

Health Data Warehouse (HHDW). (2013). BRFSS [Data set]. Hawai‘i Health Matters.

https://www.hawaiihealthmatters.org/indicators/index/view?indicatorId=3103&localeId=14&localeChartIdxs=4

H.C.R. 11. – 31st Legislature (2021): Requesting the Hawaii State Commission on the Status of Women to convene a task force to study missing and murdered Native Hawaiian women and girls. https://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/sessions/session2021/bills/HCR11_.HTM

International Women’s Network Against Militarism (IWNAM). (2015). About. http://iwnam.org/

Jany, P. (2024). Food sovereignty in Hawaiʻi. Ke Kalahea. https://hilo.hawaii.edu/news/kekalahea/spring-2023/april/food-sovereignty-in-hawaii#:~:text=Hawai%CA%BBi%20is%20located%20about%202%2C506,of%20Hawai%CA%BBi's%20food%20is%20imported

Kauanui, J. K. (2005). A fraction of national belonging: “Hybrid Hawaiians,” blood quantum and the ongoing search for purity. In N. X. M Tadir & A.Y. Davis (Eds.), Beyond the frame: Women of color and visual representation (pp. 153-168). Palgrave Macmillian.

Lema, K. (2023, April 3). Philippines reveals locations of 4 new strategic sites for U.S. military pact. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/philippines-reveals-locations-4-new-strategic-sites-us-military-pact-2023-04-03/

Lipe, K., Darrah-Okike, J., Lynch, M. K., Reilly, R., Zabala, S., Stitt-Bergh, M., Litton, C.,

Mangram, C., & Dhonacha, S. N. (2020). Our Hawai‘i-grown truth, racial healing & transformation: Recommitting to Mother Earth. In T.B. McNair (Ed.), We hold these truths: Dismantling racial hierarchies, building equitable communities (pp. 34-37). American Association of Colleges and Universities (AAC&U). https://manoa.hawaii.edu/nhpol/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Our-Hawai%CA%BBi-Grown-Truth-Racial-Healing-Transformation-Recommitting-to-Mother-Earth-1-copy.pdf

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). (2024). Living wage calculation for Hawaii. https://livingwage.mit.edu/states/15

McGregor, D. P., Morelli, P. T., Matsuoka, J. K., Rodenhurst, R., Kong, N., & Spencer, M. S. (2003). An ecological model of Native Hawaiian wellbeing. Pacific Health Dialog, 10(2), 106–128.

Murphy, S. L., Xu, J., Kochanek, K. D., Arias, E., & Tejada-Vera, B. (2021). National vital statistics report, 69(13). Center for Disease Control. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr69/nvsr69-13-508.pdf

Nordyke, E. C. (1989). The peopling of Hawaiʻi. University of Hawaiʻi Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824842406

Office of the Governor, State of Hawaiʻi. (2023). Second proclamation relating to affordable Housing. https://governor.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Second-Proclamation-Relating-to-Affordable-Housing.pdf

Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA), Lili‘uokalani Trust, & Kamehameha Schools. (2020). Native Hawaiians at increased risk of intimate partner violence during COVID-19. https://www.hscadv.org/wp-content/uploads/Native-Hawaiians-Intimate-Partner-Violence-During-COVID19-Report.pdf

Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA). (2018). Haumea—Transforming the health of Native

Hawaiian women and empowering wāhine well-being. Office of Hawaiian Affairs. https://www.oha.org/wp-content/ uploads/OHA-Womens-Health-Report-Book-1.pdf

Okazawa-Rey, M., & Kirk, G. (2000). Maximum Security. Social Justice, 27(3), 120–132.

https://doi.org/10.3224/fzg.v26i1.05

Osorio, J. H. (2021). Remembering our intimacies: Mo‘olelo, aloha ‘āina, and ea. University of Minnesota Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5749/j.ctv1xx9n48

Point-in-Time Count (PIT). (2023). Bridging the gap Coc homeless point-in-time count. Ka Mana o Na Helu. https://www.btghawaii.org/media/uploads/2023_btg_pit_count_report_final.pdf

Polaris. (2021). Polaris analysis of 2021 data from the National Human Trafficking Hotline. Polaris Project. https://polarisproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Polaris-Analysis-of-2021-Data-from-the-National-Human-Trafficking-Hotline.pdf

Popescu, R. (2016). Paradise lost: Sex trafficking in Hawaii. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2016/1/22/paradise-lost-sex-trafficking-in-hawaii

Pukui, M. K. (1983). ʻŌlelo noʻeau: Hawaiian proverbs and poetical sayings. Bishop Museum Press.

Raval, P. J. . (2018). Call her Ganda [Documentary; PBS]. Unravel Pictures.

Raymond, J. (2013). Not a choice, not a job: Exposing the myths about prostitution and the sex trade. Potomac Books.

Roe-Sepowitz, D. & Jabola-Carlous, K. (2019). Sex trafficking in Hawaiʻi: The stories of survivors. Hawaiʻi State Commision on the Status of Women; Arizona State University, Office of Sex Trafficking Intervention Research. https://humanservices.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Executive-Summary-Part-II-Sex-Trafficking-in-Hawaii-.pdf

S.R. 164. – 32nd Legislature (2023): Urging the United States Indo-Pacific Command to more proactively combat violence against civilian women and children in Hawaiʻi by making a zero-tolerance commitment, sharing gender-based prevalence data with the state government, and launching an anti-commercial sexual exploitation program across all Hawaiʻi military installations. https://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/sessions/session2023/bills/SR164_.HTM

Sierra Club of Hawaiʻi. (2024). Shut down Red Hill. https://sierraclubhawaii.org/redhill

Silva, N. (2004). Aloha betrayed: Native Hawaiian resistance to American colonialism. Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11smzsz

SMS. (2019). Hawaiʻi housing planning study, 2019. Hawaiʻi Housing Finance and Development Corporation. https://dbedt.hawaii.gov/hhfdc/files/2020/01/FINAL-State_Hawaii-Housing-Planning-Study.pdf

Teaiwa, T. (1999). Reading Paul Gauguin’s Noa Noa with Epeli Hauʻofa’s Kisses in the Nederends: Militourism, feminism, and the “Polynesian” body. In V. Hereniko & R. Wilson (Eds.), InsideoOut: Literature, cultural politics, and identity in the New Pacific (pp. 249–263). Rowman and Littlefield.

Takazato, S. (2007). Outposts of violence. Peacework, 34(372), 17.

Tengan, T. P. K. (2008). Re-membering Panalaʻau: Masculinities, nation, and empire in Hawaiʻi and the Pacific. The Contemporary Pacific, 20(1), 27–53. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/14054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/cp.2008.0016

Trask, H-K. (2010, April 2). Tourism and the prostitution of Hawaiian culture. Cultural Survival.

https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/tourism-and-prostitution-hawaiian-culture

Trask, H-K. (1999). From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawaiʻi (Revised edition). University of Hawaiʻi Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824847029

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (n.d.). Human trafficking. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/human-trafficking.html

U.S. Census Bureau. (2021). 2021 American Community Survey 1-year Estimates. https://data.census.gov/table?t=001:062&g=0400000US15&tid=ACSSPP1Y2021.S0201

Weiss, E. L. & Enrile, A. (2019). The US military– Prostitution complex, patriarchy, and masculinity: A transnational feminist perspective of the sexual global exploitation of women. In K. Zleski, A. Enrile, E.L. Weiss, & X. Wang (Eds.), Women’s journey to empowerment in the 21st Century: A Transnational feminist analysis of women’s lives in modern times, (pp. 403–420). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190927097.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190927097.003.0023

Woodruff, R C., Kaholokula, J. K., Riley, L., Loustalot, F. V., Vaughan, A., Diktonaite, K., Richardson, L. C., & Tong, X. (2023). Cardiovascular disease mortality trends among Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander adults–United States, 2018 to 2022. American Heart Association Scientific Sessions. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1161/circ.148.suppl_1.12190

World Population Review (WPR). (2023). Cost of living index by state. https://worldpopulationreview.com/state-rankings/cost-of-living-index-by-state