Psychological Distress Among Older Prisoners: A Literature Review

Main Article Content

Susan Baidawi
Chris Trotter

Abstract

Older people constitute the fastest growing age group among many prisoner populations worldwide, yet little is known about the mental wellbeing of this population. This article reviews research examining the level of psychological distress experienced by older prisoners, as well as the factors associated with this phenomenon. Findings suggest that older prisoners likely experience levels of psychological distress which are similar to that of younger prisoners and greater than that of older people in the general community. Personal, demographic, prison, and social factors associated with psychological distress are also identified from the literature and implications for future research are discussed.

Article Details

How to Cite
Baidawi, S., & Chris Trotter. (2016). Psychological Distress Among Older Prisoners: A Literature Review. Journal of Forensic Social Work, 5(1-3), 234–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/1936928X.2015.1075166
Section
Articles

References

Aday, R. H. (1994). Aging in prison: A case study of new elderly offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 38(1), 79-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X9403800108

Aday, R. H. (2003). Aging prisoners: Crisis in American corrections. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger Publishers.

Aday, R. H., & Farney, L. (2014). Malign neglect: Assessing older women's health care experiences in prison. Bioethical Inquiry, 11, 359-372. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11673-014-9561-0

Aday, R. H., & Krabill, J. J. (2011). Women aging in prison: A neglected population in the criminal justice system. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

Aday, R. H., & Krabill, J. J. (2012). Older and geriatric offenders: Critical issues for the 21st century. In L. Gideon (Ed.), Special needs offenders in correctional institutions,(pp. 203-232). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452275444.n7

Allen, R. S., Harris, G. M., Crowther, M. R., Oliver, J. S., Cavanaugh, R., & Phillips, L. L. (2013). Does religiousness and spirituality moderate the relations between physical and mental health among aging prisoners? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28, 710-717. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3874

Allen, R. S., Phillips, L. L., Roff, L. L., Cavanaugh, R., & Day, L. (2008). Religiousness/spirituality and mental health among older male inmates. The Gerontologist, 48, 692-697. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/48.5.692

Alvey, J. (2013). Ageing prisoners in Ireland: Issues for probation and social work. Irish Probation Journal, 10, 203-215.

Atkins, J., Naismith, S. L., Luscombe, G. M., & Hickie, I. B. (2013). Psychological distress and quality of life in older persons: Relative contributions of fixed and modifiable risk factors. Biomed Central Psychiatry, 13, 249-259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-249

Baidawi, S., Turner, S., Trotter, C., Browning, C., Collier, P., O'Connor, D., & Sheehan, R. (2011). Older prisoners - A challenge for Australian corrections. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 426, 1-8.

Bonta, J., & Gendreau, P. (1990). Reexamining the cruel and unusual punishment of prison life. Law and Human Behaviour, 14(4), 347-372. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01068161

Bukstel, L. H., & Kilmann, P. R. (1980). Psychological effects of imprisonment on confined individuals. Psychological Bulletin, 88(2), 469-493. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.2.469

Burling, K. L. (1999). A correlational investigation of the relationship between psychological distress, life satisfaction, and health care utilization among elderly male inmates. PhD thesis, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA.

Butler, T., Allnutt, S., Kariminia, A., & Cain, D. (2007). Mental health status of aboriginal and non-aboriginal Australian prisoners. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41, 429-435. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00048670701261210

Butler, T., Andrews, G., Allnutt, S., Sakashita, C., Smith, N. E., & Basson, J. (2006). Mental disorders in Australian prisoners: A comparison with a community sample. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40, 272-276. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1614.2006.01785.x

Byles, J. E., Gallienne, L., Blyth, F. M., & Banks, E. (2012). Relationship of age and gender to the prevalence and correlates of psychological distress in later life. International Psychogeriatrics, 24(6), 1009-1018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610211002602

Crawley, E. (2005). Institutional thoughtlessness in prisons and its impacts on the day-to-day prison lives of elderly men. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(4), 350-363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986205282018

Crawley, E., & Sparks, R. (2005). Older men in prison: Survival, coping and identity. In A. Liebling, & S. Maruna (Eds.), The effects of imprisonment, (pp. 343-366). Cullompton, UK: Willan Publishing.

Crawley, E., & Sparks, R. (2006). Is there life after imprisonment? Criminology and Criminal Justice, 6(1), 63-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895806060667

D'Ath, P., Katona, P., Mullan, E., Evans, S., & Katona, C. (1994). Screening, detection and management of depression in elderly primary care attenders. The acceptability and performance of the 15 item GDS and the development of the short versions. Family Practice, 11, 260-266. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/11.3.260

Dawes, J. (2009). Ageing prisoners: Issues for social work. Australian Social Work, 62(2), 258-271. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03124070902803475

Dohrenwend, B. P., Shrout, P. E., Egri, G., & Mendelsohn, F. S. (1980). Nonspecific psychological distress and other dimensions of psychopathology. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 1229-1236. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1980.01780240027003

Edwards, W. T., & Potter, R. H. (2004). Psychological distress, prisoner characteristics, and system experience in a prison population. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 10(2), 129-149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107834580301000202

Fazel, S., Hope, T., O'Donnell, I., & Jacoby, R. (2004). Unmet treatment needs of older prisoners: A primary care survey. Age and Ageing, 33(4), 396-398. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afh113

Fazel, S., Hope, T., O'Donnell, I., Piper, M., & Jacoby, R. (2001). Health of elderly male prisoners: Worse than the general population, worse than younger prisoners. Age and Ageing, 30(5), 403-407. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/30.5.403

Fazel, S., Hope, T., O'Donnell, I., & Jacoby, R. (2001). Hidden psychiatric morbidity in elderly prisoners. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 535-539. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.179.6.535

Gallagher, E. (1988). Older men in prison: Emotional, social, and physical health characteristics. PhD thesis, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.

Golden, J., Conroy, R. M., & Lawlor, B. A. (2009). Social support network structure in older people: Underlying dimensions and association with psychological and physical health. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 14, 280-290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13548500902730135

Hayes, A. J., Burns, A., Turnbull, P., & Shaw, J. J. (2012). The health and social needs of older male prisoners. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(11), 1155-1162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3761

Hochstetler, A., Murphy, D. S., & Simons, R. L. (2004). Damaged goods: Exploring predictors of distress in prison inmates. Crime & Delinquency, 50, 436-457. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128703257198

Howse, K. (2003). Growing old in prison: A scoping study on older prisoners. London, UK: Prison Reform Trust.

Hurley, W., & Dunne, M. P. (1991). Psychological distress and psychiatric morbidity in women prisoners. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 1991(25), 461-470. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/00048679109064439

Johnson, E. H. (2000). Elders and Japanese corrections. In M. B. Rothman, B. D. Dunlop, & P. Entzen (Eds.), Elders, crime, and the criminal justice system, (pp. 222-235). New York: Springer.

Jorm, A. F. (2001). History of depression as a risk factor for dementia: An updated review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 776-781. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2001.00967.x

Kakoullis, A., Le Mesurier, N., & Kingston, P. (2010). The mental health of older prisoners. International Psychogeriatrics, 22(5), 693-701. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610210000359

Katon, W., & Ciechanowski, P. (2002). Impact of depression on chronic medical illness. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53(4), 859-863.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00313-6

Kerbs, J. J., & Jolley, J. M. (2007). Inmate-on-inmate victimization among older male prisoners. Crime & Delinquency, 53(2), 187-218. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128706294119

Kessler, R. C. (2002). The categorical versus dimensional assessment controversy in the sociology of mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43,171-188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3090195

Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Colpe, L. J., Hiripi, E., Mroczek, D. K., Normand, S.-L. T., ... Zazlavsky, A. M. (2002). Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychological Medicine, 32, 959-976. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291702006074

Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593-602. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593

Kingston, P., Le Mesurier, N., Yorston, G., Wardle, S., & Heath, L. (2011). Psychiatric morbidity in older prisoners: Unrecognized and undertreated. International Psychogeriatrics, 23(8), 1354-1360. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610211000378

Koenig, H. G. (1995). Religion and older men in prison. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 10, 219-230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.930100308

Koenig, H. G., Johnson, S., Bellard, J., Denker, M., & Fenlon, R. (1995). Depression and anxiety disorder among older male inmates at a federal correctional facility. Psychiatric Services, 46(4), 399-401. doi: 10.1176/ps.46.4.399 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.46.4.399

Kopera-Frye, K., Harrison, M. T., Iribarne, J., Dampsey, E., Adams, M., Grabreck, T., ... Harrison, W. O. (2013). Veterans aging in place behind bars: A structured living program that works. Psychological Services, 10(1), 79-86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031269

Krabill, J. J., & Aday, R. H. (2005). Exploring the social world of aging female prisoners. Women and Criminal Justice, 17(1), 27-53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v17n01_02

Kratcoski, P. C., & Babb, S. (1990). Adjustment of older inmates: An analysis by institutional structure and gender. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 6, 264-281. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/104398629000600407

Liebling, A., Durie, L., Stiles, A., & Tait, S. (2005). Revisiting prison suicide: The role of fairness and distress. In A. Libeling, & S. Maruna (Eds.), The effects of imprisonment, (pp. 209-231). Cullompton, UK: Willan Publishing.

Loeb, S. J., & Steffensmeier, D. (2011). Older inmates' pursuit of good health: A focus group study. Research on Gerontological Nursing, 4(3), 185-194. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3928/19404921-20100730-01

Luber, M. P., Meyers, B. S., Williams-Russo, P. G., Hollenberg, J. P., DiDomenico, T. N., Charlson, M. E., & Alexopoulos, G. S. (2001). Depression and service utilization in elderly primary care patients. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9(2), 169-176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00019442-200105000-00009

Mann, N. (2012). Doing harder time?: The experiences of an ageing male prison population in England and Wales Surrey. Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited.

Maschi, T., & Baer, J. (2013). The heterogeneity of the world assumptions of older adults in prison: Do differing worldviews have a mental health effect? Traumatology, 19(1), 65-72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765612443294

Maschi, T., Morgen, K., Zgoba, K., Courtney, D., & Ristow, J. (2011). Age, cumulative trauma and stressful life events, and post-traumatic stress symptoms among older adults in prison: Do subjective impressions matter? The Gerontologist, 51(5), 675-686. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnr074

Masse, R. (2000). Qualitative and quantitative analyses of psychological distress: Methodological complementarity and ontological incommensurability. Qualitative Health Research, 10(3), 411-423. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/104973200129118426

Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1992). Age and depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33(3), 187-205. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2137349

Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2003). Social causes of psychological distress. New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter.

Murdoch, N., Morris, P., & Holmes, C. (2008). Depression in elderly life sentence prisoners. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 957-962. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2017

New Zealand Department of Corrections. (2014). Trends in the offender population. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Department of Corrections.

Newmann, J. P. (1989). Aging and depression. Psychology and Aging, 4(2), 150-165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.4.2.150

O'Connor, D. W., & Parslow, R. A. (2010). Mental health scales and psychiatric diagnoses: Responses to GHQ-12, K-10 and CIDI across the lifespan. Journal of Affective Disorders, 121, 263-267. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.038

Parmalee, P. A., Lawton, M. P., & Katz, I. R. (1989). Psychometric properties of the Geriatric Depression Scale among the institutionalized aged. Psychological Assessment, 1(4), 331-338 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.1.4.331

Paul, C., Ayis, S., & Ebrahim, S. (2006). Psychological distress, loneliness and disability in old age. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 11(2), 221-232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13548500500262945

Phillips, J. (1996). Crime and older offenders. Practice, 8(1), 43-54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09503159608415351

Phillips, L. L., Allen, R. S., Salekin, K. L., & Cavanaugh, R. K. (2009). Care alternatives in prison systems: Factors influencing end-of-life treatment selection. Criminal Justice and Behaviour, 36, 620-634. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809334442

Porporino, F. J., & Zamble, E. (1984). Coping with imprisonment. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 26(4), 403-421.

https://doi.org/10.3138/cjcrim.26.4.403

Shantz, L. R., & Frigon, S. (2009). Aging, women and health: From the pains of imprisonment to the pains of reintegration. International Journal of Prisoner Health, 5(1), 3-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17449200802692045

Strawbridge, W., Deleger, S., Roberts, R., & Kaplan, G. (2002). Physical activity reduces the risk of subsequent depression for older adults. American Journal of Epidemiology, 156(4), 328-334. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf047

Stuck, A. E., Walthert, J. M., Nikolaus, T., Bu¨la, C. J., Hohmann, C., & Beck, J. C. (1999). Risk factors for functional status decline in community-living elderly people: A systematic literature review. Social Science & Medicine, 48, 455- 469. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00370-0

Sykes, G. M. (1958). The pains of imprisonment. In G. M. Sykes (Ed.), The society of captives: A study of a maximum security prison (pp. 285-294). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Teller, F. E., & Howell, R. J. (1981). The older prisoner: Criminal and psychological characteristics. Criminology, 18(4), 549-555. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1981.tb01384.x

Toch, H. (1977). Living in prison: The ecology of survival. New York, NY: Free Press.

Uzoaba, J. H. E. (1998). Managing older offenders: Where do we stand?. Ottawa, Canada: Correctional Service of Canada.

Vega, M., & Silverman, M. (1988). Stress and the elderly convict. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 32, 153-162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X8803200208

Wahidin, A. (2004). Older women in the criminal justice system: Running out of time. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Wahidin, A., & Aday, R. H. (2005). The needs of older men and women in the criminal justice system: An international perspective. Prison Service Journal, 160, 13-22.

Williams, B. A., Lindquist, K. L., Sudore, R. L., Strupp, H. M., Willmott, D. J., & Walter, L. C. (2006). Being old and doing time: Functional impairment and adverse experiences of geriatric female prisoners. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 54(4), 702-707. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2006.00662.x

Wright, K. N. (1991). A study of individual, environmental, and interactive effects in explaining adjustment to prison. Justice Quarterly, 8(2), 217-242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829100091011